Oceania
Australia | New Zealand | Papua New Guinea
Australia
Australia is the smallest continent (and largest island). It is the sixth-largest country by population, with about 25 million people. Its climate ranges from tropical rainforest in the northeast, deserts in the center area, and mountain ranges to the southwest, southeast, and east. Despite the mountain ranges, Australia is considered the flattest continent. The dry, arid climate of the desert outback makes up the largest portion of Australia’s landscape. Australia’s indigenous population were formerly hunter-gatherers with a deep reverence for nature and a complex belief system surrounding Dreamtime, which is a term anthropologists use to describe the “everywhen” and “time out of time” concepts of Australian aboriginal culture that involve both totemic symbolism and ancestral knowledge.
Australian Fauna
Because of its separation from the rest of the world, the flora and fauna of Australia (and the rest of Australasia) are unique. Almost all marsupial animals, mammals that carry their young in a pouch, are found only in the Australasian region.
Australia is also known for its numerous dangerous animals, primarily due to its diversity of reptile and insect species, many of which are poisonous and fatal to humans. There are more venomous snakes in Australia than nonvenomous ones, and 21 of the 25 most deadly snakes in the world live in the region.
Digeridoo
The didgeridoo is an instrument developed by the indigenous people of Northern Australia sometime around 1,500 years ago. It is classified as a brass instrument, but is often referred to as a drone pipe or trumpet. Playing the instrument traditionally requires a technique called circular breathing, which allows players to blow continuously. This instrument is played primarily for ceremonial purposes, although it has also been used for entertainment. It is usually accompanied by ceremonial singing and dancing.
Boomerang
The boomerang is another object commonly associated with Australia. It is designed to spin around when thrown and return to the thrower (assuming it doesn’t strike something first). It actually comes in two forms, one that was made to return to the thrower and one that was made more as a balanced throwing weapon. Hunters used it in the latter form to hunt without expecting it to return. Returning boomerangs were likely invented as a form of sport and entertainment, which is what they are currently used for today. Although typically thought of as an Australian weapon, boomerangs were present to lesser extents in Native America, Europe, and Africa. Even the returning boomerang was found in other cultures, including the Navajo people of America.
New Zealand
New Zealand is an island nation comprised of two major islands, the North and South Islands, as well as some smaller islands. New Zealand has a temperate climate because of its island nature and has many mountain ranges and deep fjords due to ancient glaciation. It also has a large amount of volcanic activity, which has helped the island soil stay fertile. Like Australia, New Zealand has been geographically isolated from other areas for a long time, which has allowed for the evolution of unique flora and fauna not seen anywhere else in the world. The only native mammal to New Zealand is bats, and, without the threat of predation, many flightless birds like the kiwi survived to the modern day.
Maori People
The Maori people were a Polynesian people who settled in the New Zealand islands and developed a culture distinct from other Oceanic cultures. They were a primarily rural, agrarian society until the 1970s, when the majority of Maori people had migrated to cities in an attempt to earn income and support themselves as the increasing population made farming more and more difficult.
Facial Tattooing
They have developed the distinct art of facial marking, called ta moko. Although similar, this is a separate art from tattooing. In ta moko, the face is carved by chisels rather than punctured as in a tattoo, although in both cases, pigment was added to darken the area as well. These markings were given as a sign of rank and lineage, and receiving them was an important rite of passage in Maori culture.
Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea is an island country in the eastern half of New Guinea and Melanesia. It is one of the most culturally diverse locations in the world, with about 852 languages recorded, of which 12 have no living speakers left. Papua New Guinea is also one of the most rural countries left in the world, with only 18 percent of its population, around 7 million people, living in an urban location. Papua New Guinea is a temperate island with dense rainforests and a strong coastal element, with a small amount of grasslands as well.
Shells as Money
Money, as we understand it today, has not been around for a long part of history. Many cultures developed money only recently and preferred forms of the barter system. Among those cultures that had early concepts of money, using shells as currency was common. It can be found all over the world. However, shell money has been used by various Oceanic cultures for thousands of years. In this area, shell money is formed by beads that have been ground down to the appropriate size, generally by women. This process is long and laborious, and no more money than necessary is made. Because the process is so intensive, the value of the money does not depreciate. In Papua New Guinea, it is still considered legal tender in many locations.
Ceremonial Mount Hagen Axe
This axe had many uses outside of ceremonies. It was used as a tool to remove a finger joint during a period of mourning the death of a relative. It was used as a currency in order to buy other goods such as shells, oils, or salt. It was also often used as a bridal gift during a wedding. It is still often worn at the hip during special occasions. Axes with stone blades were produced until the 1950s in the Mt. Hagen area and even until the 60s in other more remote western places. It is distinctive for its giant counterweight opposite the blade.
Warfare for Papua New Guinean warriors consisted mostly of ambushes rather than traditional open battles. They would attack early in the morning before most of the villagers were awake. They also used a star-shaped club during these raids to greater effect than the axe. This is because the blade of the axe was rather thin, which is why it was more suited for cutting off fingers than being used in battle.
Kula Jimben
Also known as a Hagen Spear, this is a three-pronged, barbed spear used by the Wahgi people of Papua New Guinea. They lived in central Papua New Guinea along the Blackwater River. This spear is most likely a ceremonial spear, as many other battle spears are less intricate in design and made from a single shaft of wood. Also likely made from Black Palm, a hardwood native to the area.
Bone Dagger
Originating from Papua New Guinea, this dagger most likely comes from the people in the Sepik province. Typically, daggers were made from the bones of Cassowaries, large, dinosaur-like birds that have the reputation of being the deadliest bird alive. However, some daggers were also made from human bones, and these were considered to be more prestigious and much stronger. Bone daggers were believed to carry supernatural powers. For example, human bone daggers carried the strength of the warriors from whom the bones were taken. Daggers made from Cassowary bones were also believed to carry the ferocious spirit and power of the creature. Although no longer used in combat, they are still used in ceremonies and sometimes worn on the upper arm by fastening it with a band of braided fibers.
